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 Google TurboQuant is a revolutionary dynamic quantization technology released in early 2026 that shrinks Large Language Models (LLMs) from 16-bit to as low as 

By allowing a 70B parameter model to run on just 12GB of VRAM instead of 80GB, TurboQuant directly challenges the hardware monopoly held by memory manufacturers. While it significantly lowers the entry barrier for Local AI, the resulting surge in AI adoption may counteract the drop in memory demand, keeping 

What is Google TurboQuant? The "Compression Magic" Behind Local AI

In the 2026 hardware landscape, "Quantization" is no longer just a buzzword—it is a necessity. TurboQuant acts like high-fidelity video compression for AI weights:

Traditionally, AI models use FP16 (16 bits per parameter). TurboQuant utilizes neural redundancy to compress these to 

, effectively reducing the memory footprint by 8x.

Unlike static quantization which makes AI "dumber," TurboQuant analyzes context in real-time, preserving high precision for critical keywords while aggressively compressing filler data.

 to perform like enterprise-grade H100 clusters.

Market Impact: Will TurboQuant Actually Drop RAM Prices?

The 2026 Memory Crisis is driven by the gap between AI demand and manufacturing capacity. TurboQuant introduces a "Software Alternative" to buying more hardware:

The Bear Case for Prices: Demand Destruction

If enterprises can run their proprietary AI on 

 instead of 128GB servers, the massive procurement orders from AI giants (the primary driver of 2026 price hikes) will plummet. This could lead to a surplus of DDR5 and NAND Flash, forcing prices down for the average consumer.

The Bull Case for Prices: The Jevons Paradox

Economic history shows that when a resource becomes more efficient to use, we often use 

 of it. TurboQuant makes AI so accessible that millions of new users are entering the "Local AI" space, potentially 

The Hidden Cost: AI Compression Requires Extreme Thermal Stability

While TurboQuant saves you money on RAM capacity, the rapid "on-the-fly" decompression puts immense strain on your CPU and GPU silicon.

Dynamic quantization requires constant cryptographic-like math. This creates "burst heat" that can cause traditional air coolers to fail. A

 is essential to absorb these heat spikes and prevent AI inference lag.

The rapid switching of AI logic gates during TurboQuant execution causes massive transient power fluctuations. Only an 

ATX 3.1 PSU (like the darkFlash PMT Series)

 can provide the clean, ripple-free voltage needed to prevent system crashes during 24/7 AI workloads.

Conclusion: Software Salvation or Hardware Trap?

Google TurboQuant is the most significant software-driven "hardware hack" of 2026. While it may not instantly crash the price of RAM, it gives builders a way to fight back against the 

. To leverage this tech, focus your budget on a stable cooling and power foundation from 





Will Google TurboQuant lower RAM prices? Google TurboQuant is a revolutionary dynamic quantization technology released in early 2026 that shrinks Large Language Models (LLMs) from 16-bit to as low as 2-bit or 1.5-bit precision with negligible intelligence loss. 

By allowing a 70B parameter model to run on just 12GB of VRAM instead of 80GB, TurboQuant directly challenges the hardware monopoly held by memory manufacturers. While it significantly lowers the entry barrier for Local AI, the resulting surge in AI adoption may counteract the drop in memory demand, keeping DDR5 and HBM prices volatile throughout 2026.



What is Google TurboQuant? The "Compression Magic" Behind Local AI

In the 2026 hardware landscape, "Quantization" is no longer just a buzzword—it is a necessity. TurboQuant acts like high-fidelity video compression for AI weights:







Extreme Precision Reduction

Traditionally, AI models use FP16 (16 bits per parameter). TurboQuant utilizes neural redundancy to compress these to 2 bits, effectively reducing the memory footprint by 8x.



Dynamic Weight Compensation

Unlike static quantization which makes AI "dumber," TurboQuant analyzes context in real-time, preserving high precision for critical keywords while aggressively compressing filler data.



Hardware Liberation

This tech allows mid-range RTX 50-series GPUs or standard 32GB DDR5 kits to perform like enterprise-grade H100 clusters.



Market Impact: Will TurboQuant Actually Drop RAM Prices?

The 2026 Memory Crisis is driven by the gap between AI demand and manufacturing capacity. TurboQuant introduces a "Software Alternative" to buying more hardware:







The Bear Case for Prices: Demand Destruction

If enterprises can run their proprietary AI on 32GB CUDIMM kits instead of 128GB servers, the massive procurement orders from AI giants (the primary driver of 2026 price hikes) will plummet. This could lead to a surplus of DDR5 and NAND Flash, forcing prices down for the average consumer.



The Bull Case for Prices: The Jevons Paradox

Economic history shows that when a resource becomes more efficient to use, we often use more of it. TurboQuant makes AI so accessible that millions of new users are entering the "Local AI" space, potentially increasing total DRAM demand and sustaining high price points.



The Hidden Cost: AI Compression Requires Extreme Thermal Stability

While TurboQuant saves you money on RAM capacity, the rapid "on-the-fly" decompression puts immense strain on your CPU and GPU silicon.







Instantaneous Thermal Spikes

Dynamic quantization requires constant cryptographic-like math. This creates "burst heat" that can cause traditional air coolers to fail. A 360mm AIO is essential to absorb these heat spikes and prevent AI inference lag.



Power Ripple Management

The rapid switching of AI logic gates during TurboQuant execution causes massive transient power fluctuations. Only an ATX 3.1 PSU (like the darkFlash PMT Series) can provide the clean, ripple-free voltage needed to prevent system crashes during 24/7 AI workloads.



Conclusion: Software Salvation or Hardware Trap?

Google TurboQuant is the most significant software-driven "hardware hack" of 2026. While it may not instantly crash the price of RAM, it gives builders a way to fight back against the 2026 Memory Crisis. To leverage this tech, focus your budget on a stable cooling and power foundation from darkFlash, and let the AI models do the rest.





Google TurboQuant is here to shrink massive AI models and potentially crash global RAM prices.

Google TurboQuant Explained: The Software Killshot to the 2026 Memory Crisis?

Wiadomości techniczne

Google TurboQuant ma na celu zmniejszenie ogromnych modeli sztucznej inteligencji i potencjalny spadek cen pamięci RAM na świecie.

Wyjaśnienie Google TurboQuant: czy oprogramowanie zniweczy kryzys pamięci w 2026 r.?

If you’ve been tracking component prices lately, you’ve likely felt the sting: the 32GB DDR5 kit that fit your budget last month has nearly doubled in price. According to 2026 market forecasts, a global shortage of DRAM and NAND Flash chips has pushed pre-built and DIY PC costs up by 8% to 12%.

In this era of "Hardware Inflation," should you bite the bullet and overpay, or is there a smarter way to upgrade? Here is how to navigate the 2026 memory crisis without compromising on your build quality.

This price surge isn't a fluke; it's driven by two massive industry shifts:

When RAM and SSD prices skyrocket, they eat into your total budget, often forcing gamers to settle for a lower-tier GPU—a compromise that directly hurts your gaming experience.

PC Component Price Trends: What Should You Buy Now?

While memory prices are volatile, other critical PC components remain relatively stable. The secret to "Smart Building" in 2026 is prioritizing parts with the longest lifespan and highest price stability.

Instead of overpaying for a mid-range RAM kit, savvy builders are investing in the 

: The Case, The PSU, and The Cooling. These parts don't go obsolete every two years and are currently shielded from the memory price hike.

Future-Proofing Your Build: Focus on Chassis and Power

If your current PC is struggling but you aren't ready to pay the "Memory Tax," the smartest move is to refresh your foundation.

A premium case and power supply can last 5 to 10 years, serving you through multiple CPU and GPU upgrades.

Peripherals: The Highest Return on Investment (ROI)

In 2026, you don't need a new GPU to make your PC feel "new." Sometimes, the most noticeable performance boost comes from what you touch every day.

Conclusion: Don't Let High Prices Compromise Your PC’s Potential

Don't settle for a cheap, suffocating case or a barely-sufficient power supply just to afford overpriced RAM. Invest in high-quality 

 components today to build a rock-solid foundation. By focusing on your case, power, and peripherals, you can enjoy a premium experience now and be ready to drop in that high-speed memory whenever the market stabilizes.





If you’ve been tracking component prices lately, you’ve likely felt the sting: the 32GB DDR5 kit that fit your budget last month has nearly doubled in price. According to 2026 market forecasts, a global shortage of DRAM and NAND Flash chips has pushed pre-built and DIY PC costs up by 8% to 12%.

In this era of "Hardware Inflation," should you bite the bullet and overpay, or is there a smarter way to upgrade? Here is how to navigate the 2026 memory crisis without compromising on your build quality.



Why is PC Hardware So Expensive in 2026?

This price surge isn't a fluke; it's driven by two massive industry shifts:





The AI Infrastructure Demand: Global data centers are hoarding HBM (High Bandwidth Memory), squeezing the production lines of standard DDR5 RAM used by gamers.



The CUDIMM Transition: As manufacturers pivot to the new CUDIMM standard, supply for traditional DDR5 is shrinking, leading to a massive supply-demand imbalance.







When RAM and SSD prices skyrocket, they eat into your total budget, often forcing gamers to settle for a lower-tier GPU—a compromise that directly hurts your gaming experience.



PC Component Price Trends: What Should You Buy Now?

While memory prices are volatile, other critical PC components remain relatively stable. The secret to "Smart Building" in 2026 is prioritizing parts with the longest lifespan and highest price stability.

Instead of overpaying for a mid-range RAM kit, savvy builders are investing in the "Foundational Trio": The Case, The PSU, and The Cooling. These parts don't go obsolete every two years and are currently shielded from the memory price hike.





(darkFlash DY460 ATX PC Case)



Future-Proofing Your Build: Focus on Chassis and Power

If your current PC is struggling but you aren't ready to pay the "Memory Tax," the smartest move is to refresh your foundation.



Invest in a High-End PSU and Case

A premium case and power supply can last 5 to 10 years, serving you through multiple CPU and GPU upgrades.





The Power Foundation: With RTX 50-series power demands peaking, a high-quality ATX 3.1 PSU is non-negotiable. The darkFlash PMT Series / PMT Series White Edition offers the stability and native connectors needed for future flagship GPUs, ensuring you won't have to rebuild when memory prices finally drop.



The Thermal Solution: Modern high-density hardware runs hot. A case with superior airflow, like the darkFlash DY460, doesn't just look stunning—it provides the physical cooling needed to extend the lifespan of your current components while you wait for a better time to buy RAM.





(darkFlash PMT Series PSU - White Edition)



Peripherals: The Highest Return on Investment (ROI)

In 2026, you don't need a new GPU to make your PC feel "new." Sometimes, the most noticeable performance boost comes from what you touch every day.





Magnetic Switch Keyboards: Swapping to a darkFlash Magnetic Switch Keyboard provides an immediate upgrade in responsiveness. With features like Rapid Trigger, the tactile improvement in competitive gaming is often more noticeable than a 10 FPS increase from a more expensive graphics card.



Professional Gaming Mice: Upgrading your sensor and skates can refresh your gaming experience for a fraction of the cost of a new SSD.







Conclusion: Don't Let High Prices Compromise Your PC’s Potential





Don't settle for a cheap, suffocating case or a barely-sufficient power supply just to afford overpriced RAM. Invest in high-quality darkFlash components today to build a rock-solid foundation. By focusing on your case, power, and peripherals, you can enjoy a premium experience now and be ready to drop in that high-speed memory whenever the market stabilizes.

Beat the 2026 memory crisis with this smart guide to navigating soaring PC component prices.

The 2026 Memory Crisis: Why PC Prices are Rising and How to Build Smart

Pokonaj kryzys pamięci 2026 roku dzięki temu inteligentnemu przewodnikowi, który pomoże Ci poradzić sobie ze wzrostem cen podzespołów komputerowych.

Kryzys pamięci w 2026 roku: dlaczego ceny komputerów PC rosną i jak budować inteligentne systemy

Following the recent price rebound of DDR4 and DDR5 memory, signs are emerging that GPU costs may soon climb as well. With flash and GDDR memory prices trending upward, the entire graphics card supply chain could feel the pressure. Here’s a breakdown of what’s happening and what it means for PC builders and gamers.

The semiconductor memory market is entering another upward cycle.

Recent data from TrendForce and DRAMeXchange shows that both DRAM and NAND flash prices have increased by 15–25% in late 2025, after nearly two years of decline.

Major manufacturers like Samsung, Micron, and SK Hynix have reduced older production lines and redirected capacity to meet surging AI and server demand. This has tightened supply for conventional memory chips used across PC components — from RAM modules to graphics cards.

A modern GPU relies on graphics memory (GDDR) to process and store data such as textures, frames, and shader information. In high-performance graphics cards, GDDR6 and GDDR6X memory modules can account for up to 20–25% of total production cost.

This means that even small changes in memory pricing can directly influence the final cost of a GPU — particularly for models with 

The recent surge in memory prices is not limited to DDR modules.

Both GDDR (Graphics Double Data Rate) and flash memory used in GPUs are also affected, due to several combined factors:

Fabrication capacity is increasingly prioritized for high-bandwidth memory (HBM) used in AI accelerators, which reduces supply for traditional GDDR chips used in gaming GPUs.

As manufacturers move from GDDR6 to GDDR7, production of older chips slows down, leading to higher costs for remaining stock.

Flash storage, used in GPU firmware and BIOS components, has seen double-digit percentage increases this quarter.

Longer delivery schedules and component shortages are prompting board makers to stockpile inventory, adding further cost pressure.

These factors collectively increase the bill of materials (BOM) for GPU production, even before assembly and logistics are considered.

While GPU manufacturers typically try to maintain stable pricing, cost pressure from memory components can eventually filter down to consumers.

Rather than direct MSRP hikes, consumers may see fewer discounts, slower price drops, or “refresh” models with adjusted specifications and memory sizes.

Despite upward cost trends, several factors may help contain large-scale price jumps:

As a result, the adjustment in GPU pricing is more likely to be gradual rather than sudden, depending on how memory supply evolves through 2026.

To understand where GPU pricing is heading, pay attention to:

These indicators can reveal whether memory costs are translating into real-world price movement.

Conclusion: The Memory Ripple Effect Continues

The memory market’s rebound is already visible in DDR4, DDR5, and NAND flash segments — and GPUs may be next in line. As GDDR and flash memory costs increase, graphics cards could gradually become more expensive over the coming months.

For PC builders and gamers, it may be wise to plan upgrades early or watch for clearance deals before the next product generation arrives.

While the increase may not be dramatic, the trend shows a clear reminder: in the tech world, memory prices influence everything — even the heart of your gaming PC.





Following the recent price rebound of DDR4 and DDR5 memory, signs are emerging that GPU costs may soon climb as well. With flash and GDDR memory prices trending upward, the entire graphics card supply chain could feel the pressure. Here’s a breakdown of what’s happening and what it means for PC builders and gamers.



Memory Prices Are Rising Again





(source credit: TrendForce)



The semiconductor memory market is entering another upward cycle.

Recent data from TrendForce and DRAMeXchange shows that both DRAM and NAND flash prices have increased by 15–25% in late 2025, after nearly two years of decline.

Major manufacturers like Samsung, Micron, and SK Hynix have reduced older production lines and redirected capacity to meet surging AI and server demand. This has tightened supply for conventional memory chips used across PC components — from RAM modules to graphics cards.



GPUs Depend Heavily on Memory





A modern GPU relies on graphics memory (GDDR) to process and store data such as textures, frames, and shader information. In high-performance graphics cards, GDDR6 and GDDR6X memory modules can account for up to 20–25% of total production cost.



This means that even small changes in memory pricing can directly influence the final cost of a GPU — particularly for models with large VRAM capacities like 16 GB or 24 GB.



Rising Flash and GDDR Costs



(image credit: Samsung Semiconductor)



The recent surge in memory prices is not limited to DDR modules.
Both GDDR (Graphics Double Data Rate) and flash memory used in GPUs are also affected, due to several combined factors:

AI-Driven Capacity Reallocation

Fabrication capacity is increasingly prioritized for high-bandwidth memory (HBM) used in AI accelerators, which reduces supply for traditional GDDR chips used in gaming GPUs.



Transition to Newer Nodes

As manufacturers move from GDDR6 to GDDR7, production of older chips slows down, leading to higher costs for remaining stock.



NAND/Flash Price Recovery

Flash storage, used in GPU firmware and BIOS components, has seen double-digit percentage increases this quarter.



Extended Lead Times

Longer delivery schedules and component shortages are prompting board makers to stockpile inventory, adding further cost pressure.



These factors collectively increase the bill of materials (BOM) for GPU production, even before assembly and logistics are considered.



Possible Impact on GPU Prices





While GPU manufacturers typically try to maintain stable pricing, cost pressure from memory components can eventually filter down to consumers.
Based on current trends:





Mid-range GPUs could see 5–10% higher production costs.



High-end GPUs with large VRAM or next-generation memory like GDDR7 could rise by 10–20% in total cost.

Rather than direct MSRP hikes, consumers may see fewer discounts, slower price drops, or “refresh” models with adjusted specifications and memory sizes.



Factors That Could Soften the Effect





Despite upward cost trends, several factors may help contain large-scale price jumps:





Softening GPU demand in the DIY and gaming market may encourage manufacturers to absorb part of the increase.



Improving yields of GDDR7 memory could lower per-chip costs over time.



Remaining inventory from earlier production runs may cushion the short-term impact.

As a result, the adjustment in GPU pricing is more likely to be gradual rather than sudden, depending on how memory supply evolves through 2026.



What to Keep an Eye On

To understand where GPU pricing is heading, pay attention to:





Spot and contract prices for GDDR6/GDDR7 on DRAMeXchange or TrendForce



Quarterly reports from Samsung, Micron, and SK Hynix on memory profitability



MSI, ASUS, and Gigabyte pricing adjustments or inventory clearances



Launch prices of upcoming GDDR7-based GPUs

These indicators can reveal whether memory costs are translating into real-world price movement.







Conclusion: The Memory Ripple Effect Continues

The memory market’s rebound is already visible in DDR4, DDR5, and NAND flash segments — and GPUs may be next in line. As GDDR and flash memory costs increase, graphics cards could gradually become more expensive over the coming months.

For PC builders and gamers, it may be wise to plan upgrades early or watch for clearance deals before the next product generation arrives.

While the increase may not be dramatic, the trend shows a clear reminder: in the tech world, memory prices influence everything — even the heart of your gaming PC.

DRAM/NAND prices are climbing and GDDR is tightening. Here’s how memory cost pressure could nudge GPU prices higher.

Will GPU Prices Rise Next? The Ripple Effect of Flash and Memory Cost Surges

Ceny pamięci DRAM/NAND rosną, a GDDR jest coraz bardziej restrykcyjny. Oto, jak presja na koszty pamięci może wpłynąć na wzrost cen procesorów graficznych.

Czy ceny GPU wzrosną? Efekt domina wzrostu kosztów pamięci flash i pamięci RAM

Just months after the noticeable surge in DDR4 prices, the PC industry is facing another wave — this time with DDR5. Once expected to stabilize as production matured, DDR5 memory is now climbing sharply in cost. 

From high-end desktop kits to mainstream 16 GB modules, prices have risen as much as 

 in certain regions. What’s driving this new round of increases — and how might it affect PC builders, system integrators, and component brands?

, DRAM spot prices surged nearly 10% in a single week this October as buyers rushed to secure inventory ahead of further hikes. DDR5 modules — which once benefited from falling prices as adoption spread — are now trending upward in both spot and contract markets.

 reports that community data shows retail DDR5 kits from brands like Corsair, G.Skill, and Kingston rising significantly in Europe and Asia. In some regions, the price per gigabyte has nearly doubled compared to mid-year 2024 levels.

For consumers, this means one clear thing: upgrading or building a DDR5-based system is getting more expensive again.

The reasons behind the DDR5 price rise are complex, but a few major factors stand out:

Global AI infrastructure build-outs are consuming vast amounts of memory. Data centers deploying GPUs like NVIDIA’s H100 and H200 rely on high-bandwidth DRAM (HBM) and advanced DDR5 chips, directly competing with consumer-grade production capacity.

 recently noted, “AI data centers are swallowing the world’s memory supply.” This diversion of wafer allocation from PC DRAM to HBM has reduced output for DDR5 modules used in consumer and enterprise PCs.

2. Manufacturers Prioritizing High-Margin Products

Major DRAM suppliers — Samsung, SK Hynix, and Micron — have strategically shifted focus toward more profitable segments like HBM3E and LPDDR5X. Commodity DDR5 modules yield lower profit per wafer, so manufacturers are scaling back consumer DRAM lines to optimize margins.

When rumors of supply shortages surface, memory module assemblers and distributors often buy ahead to lock in pricing. This behavior, while rational, amplifies short-term demand and constrains supply in the spot market, leading to sudden price spikes — the same pattern we saw during DDR4’s recent rebound.

4. Supply Chain Transition and Yield Issues

As fabs migrate to 1β and 1α nm nodes for next-gen DRAM production, yields can initially drop. That limits supply while costs remain high. Combined with continued geopolitical uncertainties and logistics challenges, memory output simply isn’t keeping up with demand.

For PC builders and DIY enthusiasts, higher DDR5 prices increase total build cost — especially in mid-range and performance segments.

A memory kit that cost $80–90 earlier this year may now exceed $120–130. While that might seem minor for premium builds, it directly affects the 

, driven by AI hardware demand and restrained production volumes. TrendForce predicts overall DRAM prices could rise 

The silver lining is that DDR5 remains in high demand thanks to platform adoption (Intel 700-series, AMD AM5). As more users transition, economies of scale could eventually bring stability — but not before this current shortage cycle plays out.

DDR5’s price surge highlights the new reality of a memory market dominated by AI and data-center demand. As production capacity shifts toward high-bandwidth applications, consumer DRAM will continue to feel the squeeze. For PC enthusiasts and brands alike, this isn’t just a supply-chain story — it’s a reminder that even as technology evolves, the economics of silicon remain as volatile as ever.





Just months after the noticeable surge in DDR4 prices, the PC industry is facing another wave — this time with DDR5. Once expected to stabilize as production matured, DDR5 memory is now climbing sharply in cost. 

From high-end desktop kits to mainstream 16 GB modules, prices have risen as much as 30–50% in certain regions. What’s driving this new round of increases — and how might it affect PC builders, system integrators, and component brands?



The Current Market Situation





(image credit :TrendForce)



According to TrendForce, DRAM spot prices surged nearly 10% in a single week this October as buyers rushed to secure inventory ahead of further hikes. DDR5 modules — which once benefited from falling prices as adoption spread — are now trending upward in both spot and contract markets.



Notebookcheck reports that community data shows retail DDR5 kits from brands like Corsair, G.Skill, and Kingston rising significantly in Europe and Asia. In some regions, the price per gigabyte has nearly doubled compared to mid-year 2024 levels.

For consumers, this means one clear thing: upgrading or building a DDR5-based system is getting more expensive again.



What’s Causing the Surge





The reasons behind the DDR5 price rise are complex, but a few major factors stand out:



1. AI and Data Center Demand

Global AI infrastructure build-outs are consuming vast amounts of memory. Data centers deploying GPUs like NVIDIA’s H100 and H200 rely on high-bandwidth DRAM (HBM) and advanced DDR5 chips, directly competing with consumer-grade production capacity.

As Tom’s Hardware recently noted, “AI data centers are swallowing the world’s memory supply.” This diversion of wafer allocation from PC DRAM to HBM has reduced output for DDR5 modules used in consumer and enterprise PCs.



2. Manufacturers Prioritizing High-Margin Products

Major DRAM suppliers — Samsung, SK Hynix, and Micron — have strategically shifted focus toward more profitable segments like HBM3E and LPDDR5X. Commodity DDR5 modules yield lower profit per wafer, so manufacturers are scaling back consumer DRAM lines to optimize margins.



3. Panic Buying and Inventory Hedging

When rumors of supply shortages surface, memory module assemblers and distributors often buy ahead to lock in pricing. This behavior, while rational, amplifies short-term demand and constrains supply in the spot market, leading to sudden price spikes — the same pattern we saw during DDR4’s recent rebound.



4. Supply Chain Transition and Yield Issues

As fabs migrate to 1β and 1α nm nodes for next-gen DRAM production, yields can initially drop. That limits supply while costs remain high. Combined with continued geopolitical uncertainties and logistics challenges, memory output simply isn’t keeping up with demand.



Impact on PC Builders



(Image Credit: idealo)



For PC builders and DIY enthusiasts, higher DDR5 prices increase total build cost — especially in mid-range and performance segments.

A memory kit that cost $80–90 earlier this year may now exceed $120–130. While that might seem minor for premium builds, it directly affects the bill of materials (BOM) for integrators and system assemblers.



Market Outlook





Analysts expect the DRAM price uptrend to continue into early 2026, driven by AI hardware demand and restrained production volumes. TrendForce predicts overall DRAM prices could rise 10–20% quarter-over-quarter, depending on market response.

The silver lining is that DDR5 remains in high demand thanks to platform adoption (Intel 700-series, AMD AM5). As more users transition, economies of scale could eventually bring stability — but not before this current shortage cycle plays out.



What Builders and Buyers Should Do





Secure modules early: If you’re planning new PC builds or system batches, lock in DDR5 inventory before the next quarter’s pricing revision.



Offer flexible configurations: For OEMs or boutique builders, consider offering both DDR4 and DDR5 SKUs where platform compatibility allows.



Monitor supplier communication: Stay updated with module vendors on lead times and allocation changes.



Communicate value: Even as costs rise, focus marketing on overall system performance, stability, and forward-compatibility, not just raw specs.



Conclusion

DDR5’s price surge highlights the new reality of a memory market dominated by AI and data-center demand. As production capacity shifts toward high-bandwidth applications, consumer DRAM will continue to feel the squeeze. For PC enthusiasts and brands alike, this isn’t just a supply-chain story — it’s a reminder that even as technology evolves, the economics of silicon remain as volatile as ever.

DDR5 memory prices are climbing sharply in 2025 as AI demand, supply reallocation, and panic buying tighten the DRAM market. Here’s why it’s happening and what it means for PC builders.

DDR5 Memory Prices Are Rising — Here's Why It's Happening Again

Ceny pamięci DDR5 gwałtownie rosną w 2025 roku, ponieważ popyt na pamięć DRAM ze strony sztucznej inteligencji, realokacja podaży i paniczne zakupy zacieśniają rynek pamięci DRAM. Oto dlaczego tak się dzieje i co to oznacza dla producentów komputerów.

Ceny pamięci DDR5 rosną — oto dlaczego to się dzieje ponownie

Over the past year, the memory market has seen an unexpected twist: DDR4, once considered an “outdated” standard, has experienced a dramatic price surge and regained attention from both consumers and industry players. 

While DDR5 was expected to completely dominate by now, DDR4 is proving to be far from obsolete. In this article, we’ll explore the reasons behind DDR4’s surprising comeback and what it means for PC users and the industry.

Leading memory manufacturers like Samsung, Micron, and SK hynix have gradually reduced DDR4 production capacity, shifting resources toward DDR5 and advanced technologies like HBM. As supply tightens, DDR4 modules have become scarcer, driving prices upward.

ChangXin Memory Technologies (CXMT), which once pushed DDR4 prices down by adding extra supply, has also shifted focus to DDR5 in 2025. With fewer manufacturers supporting DDR4, the market balance has swung from oversupply to shortage.

When buyers fear future shortages, they tend to stock up early. PC builders, distributors, and even end-users have been buying DDR4 aggressively, adding further pressure on limited supply.

In a rare twist, DDR4 has in some cases become more expensive than DDR5. Reports have shown DDR4 chips trading at higher prices per gigabyte compared to DDR5, a clear sign of supply-demand imbalance rather than technical merit.

Millions of systems worldwide still rely on DDR4 platforms. For many users, replacing an entire CPU and motherboard just to switch to DDR5 isn’t cost-effective, making DDR4 upgrades the logical choice.

While DDR5 offers higher bandwidth and future scalability, DDR4 remains more than capable for everyday workloads, gaming, and office use. For many, the performance difference isn’t worth the cost of a full platform upgrade.

Upgrading to DDR5 means investing in a new motherboard and often a new CPU. Sticking with DDR4 is a simpler, cheaper upgrade path.

Many DDR4 kits still come with advanced heat spreaders, RGB lighting, and sleek designs, offering strong appeal to gamers and PC builders focused on aesthetics as much as performance.

The DDR4 revival is not simply nostalgia — it’s the result of shrinking supply, platform compatibility, and short-term market behavior. While DDR5 remains the future of memory, DDR4 continues to prove its relevance in 2025.

For PC users, this moment highlights the importance of timing upgrades carefully. DDR4 still offers strong value and compatibility today, but its long-term availability is uncertain. In the fast-moving world of PC hardware, sometimes yesterday’s standard still has a surprising role to play.





Over the past year, the memory market has seen an unexpected twist: DDR4, once considered an “outdated” standard, has experienced a dramatic price surge and regained attention from both consumers and industry players. 

While DDR5 was expected to completely dominate by now, DDR4 is proving to be far from obsolete. In this article, we’ll explore the reasons behind DDR4’s surprising comeback and what it means for PC users and the industry.



Why Are DDR4 Prices Rising?



(DRAM Avg. Spot Price – Chart credit: TrendForce on X)



Shrinking Supply

Leading memory manufacturers like Samsung, Micron, and SK hynix have gradually reduced DDR4 production capacity, shifting resources toward DDR5 and advanced technologies like HBM. As supply tightens, DDR4 modules have become scarcer, driving prices upward.



Chinese Manufacturer Transition

ChangXin Memory Technologies (CXMT), which once pushed DDR4 prices down by adding extra supply, has also shifted focus to DDR5 in 2025. With fewer manufacturers supporting DDR4, the market balance has swung from oversupply to shortage.



Stockpiling and Panic Buying

When buyers fear future shortages, they tend to stock up early. PC builders, distributors, and even end-users have been buying DDR4 aggressively, adding further pressure on limited supply.



Price Inversion

In a rare twist, DDR4 has in some cases become more expensive than DDR5. Reports have shown DDR4 chips trading at higher prices per gigabyte compared to DDR5, a clear sign of supply-demand imbalance rather than technical merit.



Why Is DDR4 Still Popular?





Massive Installed Base

Millions of systems worldwide still rely on DDR4 platforms. For many users, replacing an entire CPU and motherboard just to switch to DDR5 isn’t cost-effective, making DDR4 upgrades the logical choice.



Good Enough Performance

While DDR5 offers higher bandwidth and future scalability, DDR4 remains more than capable for everyday workloads, gaming, and office use. For many, the performance difference isn’t worth the cost of a full platform upgrade.



Compatibility and Cost Barriers

Upgrading to DDR5 means investing in a new motherboard and often a new CPU. Sticking with DDR4 is a simpler, cheaper upgrade path.



Market Perception and Aesthetics

Many DDR4 kits still come with advanced heat spreaders, RGB lighting, and sleek designs, offering strong appeal to gamers and PC builders focused on aesthetics as much as performance.



Risks and Future Outlook









Uncertain Longevity: If DDR5 production continues to ramp up and prices fall, DDR4 could quickly lose its renewed momentum.



Volatile Prices: With fewer manufacturers producing DDR4, supply fluctuations could lead to unstable pricing.



Short-Term Popularity: The current surge may be temporary, driven by stockpiling and panic buying rather than sustainable long-term demand.



Conclusion

The DDR4 revival is not simply nostalgia — it’s the result of shrinking supply, platform compatibility, and short-term market behavior. While DDR5 remains the future of memory, DDR4 continues to prove its relevance in 2025.



For PC users, this moment highlights the importance of timing upgrades carefully. DDR4 still offers strong value and compatibility today, but its long-term availability is uncertain. In the fast-moving world of PC hardware, sometimes yesterday’s standard still has a surprising role to play.

This article explores the supply cuts, market shifts, and user demand that fueled DDR4's comeback.

DDR4's Comeback: Why Prices Are Surging and Popularity Is Rising Again

W tym artykule omówiono cięcia w dostawach, zmiany na rynku i popyt użytkowników, które przyczyniły się do powrotu pamięci DDR4.

Powrót pamięci DDR4: dlaczego ceny rosną, a popularność znów rośnie

How-to Guides                                                   

When you buy a new set of RAM, you might notice a sticker showing “DDR5-6000 CL36” or something similar. But when you first install the memory, your BIOS often defaults to a much slower speed—like DDR5-4800. That’s because memory doesn’t automatically run at its advertised speed; instead, you need to enable a memory profile.

Let’s break down the most common ones: X.M.P, DOCP, EXPO, and A-XMP.

If you’re on Intel, X.M.P is the standard.

Think of DOCP as an AMD bridge for X.M.P RAM.

EXPO (Extended Profiles for Overclocking)

If you’re on socket AM5 (e.g. Ryzen 7000) or newer, EXPO RAM kits are the best choice.

It’s basically MSI’s naming convention for the same goal: running X.M.P RAM on AMD.

Memory overclocking depends on the CPU’s IMC (Integrated Memory Controller) and motherboard quality. Not every chip can handle ultra-fast kits (e.g., DDR5-7200), even if the RAM supports it. Always check the QVL (Qualified Vendor List) of your motherboard before buying.





When you buy a new set of RAM, you might notice a sticker showing “DDR5-6000 CL36” or something similar. But when you first install the memory, your BIOS often defaults to a much slower speed—like DDR5-4800. That’s because memory doesn’t automatically run at its advertised speed; instead, you need to enable a memory profile.

Let’s break down the most common ones: X.M.P, DOCP, EXPO, and A-XMP.



Why Memory Profiles Exist











Modern DDR4 and DDR5 memory modules ship with multiple timing tables stored in their SPD (Serial Presence Detect) chip.



By default, the motherboard uses JEDEC (JEDEC Solid State Technology Association) standard speeds (safe, widely compatible).



To achieve the advertised speed and latency, you need to load the manufacturer-tested performance profile.

This is where these acronyms come in.



X.M.P (Extreme Memory Profile)











Origin: Developed by Intel.



Function: Provides pre-tested overclocking settings (frequency, voltage, timings).



Platform: Works natively on Intel motherboards (Z-series, B-series, etc.).



Example: A DDR5-6000 kit with X.M.P can be enabled in BIOS with one click, instantly boosting performance beyond JEDEC defaults.

If you’re on Intel, X.M.P is the standard.



DOCP (Direct Over Clock Profile)











Origin: Created by ASUS for AMD platforms.



Function: Essentially “translates” Intel’s X.M.P profile into AMD-readable settings.



Platform: Found mostly on ASUS AMD motherboards.



Why It Exists: Before AMD had its own standard, DOCP was the workaround to make Intel-optimized RAM profiles usable.

Think of DOCP as an AMD bridge for X.M.P RAM.



EXPO (Extended Profiles for Overclocking)











Origin: Developed by AMD, launched alongside DDR5.



Function: Like X.M.P, but optimized for AMD Ryzen CPUs.



Platform: Supported by most modern AMD AM5 motherboards.



Key Difference: EXPO often provides two profiles (performance + stability) and is tested for Ryzen’s memory controller and Infinity Fabric.



Marketing Angle: AMD positions EXPO as an “open standard” (in contrast to Intel’s licensed X.M.P).

If you’re on socket AM5 (e.g. Ryzen 7000) or newer, EXPO RAM kits are the best choice.



A-XMP











Origin: MSI’s branding for AMD motherboards.



Function: Similar to DOCP—lets you enable Intel X.M.P profiles on AMD boards.



Platform: MSI AMD boards (e.g., B550, X570).

It’s basically MSI’s naming convention for the same goal: running X.M.P RAM on AMD.



Which Should You Use?





Intel users: Always enable X.M.P in BIOS.



AMD Ryzen 5000 (DDR4): Look for DOCP/A-XMP to unlock X.M.P kits.



AMD Ryzen 7000 (DDR5): Choose EXPO-certified kits for the smoothest experience.



Final Note

Memory overclocking depends on the CPU’s IMC (Integrated Memory Controller) and motherboard quality. Not every chip can handle ultra-fast kits (e.g., DDR5-7200), even if the RAM supports it. Always check the QVL (Qualified Vendor List) of your motherboard before buying.

This guide explains what each memory profile means, how they differ across Intel and AMD platforms, and which one you should enable to unlock your RAM’s full speed.

XMP vs. DOCP vs. EXPO vs. A-XMP Explained: Unlock Your RAM’s Full Speed with the Right Memory Profile

Poradniki praktyczne

W tym przewodniku wyjaśniono, co oznacza każdy profil pamięci, czym różnią się one na platformach Intel i AMD oraz który z nich należy włączyć, aby odblokować pełną prędkość pamięci RAM.

XMP vs. DOCP vs. EXPO vs. A-XMP – wyjaśnienie: Odblokuj pełną prędkość swojej pamięci RAM dzięki odpowiedniemu profilowi pamięci

Build Guides                                                    

When people talk about upgrading RAM, the first questions are usually: 

But there’s another factor that gets thrown around a lot—RAM speed, often listed as 3200 MHz, 5600 MHz, 6400 MHz, and beyond.So what exactly does that number mean, and how much does it actually affect real-world performance? Let’s break it down.

, tells you how many cycles of data the memory can handle per second. Higher numbers equal more potential bandwidth.

But speed is only one piece of the puzzle. Memory performance depends on three things working together:

All three determine how responsive your system feels.

, improving efficiency when handling multiple tasks at once.

A common trap is assuming that higher MHz automatically equals better performance. In reality, you also have to consider 

, which measures the delay before memory responds to a request.

Even though DDR5 has a higher latency number, its much faster clock speed offsets this. What really matters is true latency in nanoseconds, calculated as:

This is why DDR5, despite higher CL, still outperforms DDR4 in most cases.

What RAM Speed Should You Choose in 2025?

Just remember: your CPU and motherboard must support the speeds you are aiming for. Always check the 





When people talk about upgrading RAM, the first questions are usually: How many gigabytes do I need? and Should I run single or dual-channel?


But there’s another factor that gets thrown around a lot—RAM speed, often listed as 3200 MHz, 5600 MHz, 6400 MHz, and beyond.So what exactly does that number mean, and how much does it actually affect real-world performance? Let’s break it down.



What RAM Speed Actually Means

RAM speed, or frequency, tells you how many cycles of data the memory can handle per second. Higher numbers equal more potential bandwidth.

But speed is only one piece of the puzzle. Memory performance depends on three things working together:





Capacity (GB) → How much data can be stored



Channels (single, dual, quad) → How many lanes data can travel across



Frequency (MHz) → How fast those lanes can move data

All three determine how responsive your system feels.







Does Faster RAM Make Your PC Faster?

The short answer: sometimes, but not always.











Gaming: In most AAA titles, faster RAM might improve FPS by just a few percent. But in competitive eSports games, like CS2 or Valorant, higher speeds can help maintain smoother frame delivery at high refresh rates.



Content creation: Video editing, 3D rendering, and large simulations benefit more from the extra bandwidth.



Everyday use: Faster RAM makes little difference when browsing or running basic apps, but it can reduce stutter when multitasking heavily.



DDR4 vs. DDR5: How the Numbers Compare

DDR4





Common speeds: 2133–3600 MHz



High-end kits can push past 4600 MHz

DDR5





Starts at 4800 MHz by default



Mainstream kits: 5600–6400 MHz



Premium kits already exceed 8000 MHz





(DDR5 Overview, Kingston)



Beyond raw speed, DDR5 also brings dual 32-bit sub-channels per DIMM, improving efficiency when handling multiple tasks at once.



Speed vs. Latency: The Balancing Act

A common trap is assuming that higher MHz automatically equals better performance. In reality, you also have to consider CAS Latency (CL), which measures the delay before memory responds to a request.







For example:





DDR4-3200 CL16



DDR5-6000 CL40

Even though DDR5 has a higher latency number, its much faster clock speed offsets this. What really matters is true latency in nanoseconds, calculated as:

True Latency = (CL ÷ Frequency) × 2000

This is why DDR5, despite higher CL, still outperforms DDR4 in most cases.







What RAM Speed Should You Choose in 2025?





Everyday users: DDR4-3200 or DDR5-5600 is more than enough.



Gamers: DDR4-3600 or DDR5-6000–6400 hits the sweet spot for most modern builds.



Content creators and professionals: High-frequency, low-latency kits provide real benefits in editing, rendering, and workstation workloads.

Just remember: your CPU and motherboard must support the speeds you are aiming for. Always check the QVL (Qualified Vendor List) for compatibility.

What really affects RAM speed? Let’s break it down in simple terms.

RAM Speed Explained: How Much Does Frequency Affect Performance?

Przewodniki po kompilacji

Co tak naprawdę wpływa na szybkość pamięci RAM? Wyjaśnijmy to w prostych słowach.

Objaśnienie prędkości pamięci RAM: Jak częstotliwość wpływa na wydajność?

When choosing RAM for a PC build, capacity usually gets the most attention—whether you need 16GB, 32GB, or more. But the way that RAM is configured also matters. Most consumer systems support 

Dual-channel RAM isn’t about adding more gigabytes—it’s about doubling the available bandwidth. With two identical sticks working together, your system can move twice as much data at the same time, reducing wait times and improving overall responsiveness.

Your motherboard must support dual-channel memory. Almost every modern board does, but it’s worth checking the specifications just to be sure.

GIGABYTE X870E AORUS XTREME AI TOP Motherboard

For dual-channel to work, the two sticks need to match. That means the same capacity (8GB + 8GB, 16GB + 16GB), the same frequency, and ideally the same brand and model. Using a pre-packaged RAM kit is the easiest way to guarantee compatibility.

Most motherboards have four RAM slots, but only certain pairings enable dual-channel. 

Always follow the diagram in your motherboard manual.

Does Dual-Channel Make a Difference in Games?

The answer depends on the game. Memory bandwidth matters more in some scenarios than others.

In other words, single-channel RAM is still capable of running modern games at smooth frame rates. But if you want to push performance further or reduce system latency, dual-channel provides an advantage.

(Gaming Performance: Single vs. Dual-Channel RAM, 

Single-channel memory will get the job done for everyday tasks, but dual-channel gives your system more bandwidth to breathe. 

For most new PC builds in 2025, dual-channel is worth it, especially since the cost difference is usually minimal.





When choosing RAM for a PC build, capacity usually gets the most attention—whether you need 16GB, 32GB, or more. But the way that RAM is configured also matters. Most consumer systems support single-channel or dual-channel memory setups.



Dual-channel RAM isn’t about adding more gigabytes—it’s about doubling the available bandwidth. With two identical sticks working together, your system can move twice as much data at the same time, reducing wait times and improving overall responsiveness.



How to Run RAM in Dual-Channel Mode

Motherboard support

Your motherboard must support dual-channel memory. Almost every modern board does, but it’s worth checking the specifications just to be sure.





(GIGABYTE X870E AORUS XTREME AI TOP Motherboard)



Matching RAM kits

For dual-channel to work, the two sticks need to match. That means the same capacity (8GB + 8GB, 16GB + 16GB), the same frequency, and ideally the same brand and model. Using a pre-packaged RAM kit is the easiest way to guarantee compatibility.







Correct slot placement

Most motherboards have four RAM slots, but only certain pairings enable dual-channel. 

Always follow the diagram in your motherboard manual.









Does Dual-Channel Make a Difference in Games?

The answer depends on the game. Memory bandwidth matters more in some scenarios than others.





Memory-sensitive titles like Fortnite or GTA V can see performance gains of 10% or more when switching from single- to dual-channel.



Less demanding games such as Modern Warfare 2 or F1 22 show little difference, often under 2%.

In other words, single-channel RAM is still capable of running modern games at smooth frame rates. But if you want to push performance further or reduce system latency, dual-channel provides an advantage.





(Gaming Performance: Single vs. Dual-Channel RAM, ProYamYamPC)



Which Should You Choose?





Single-channel: Fine for light use like browsing, streaming, and office work.



Dual-channel: Recommended for gamers, content creators, and multitaskers who want every bit of performance.







Final Thoughts

Single-channel memory will get the job done for everyday tasks, but dual-channel gives your system more bandwidth to breathe. 

For most new PC builds in 2025, dual-channel is worth it, especially since the cost difference is usually minimal.





This guide breaks down single vs. dual-channel RAM, how it works, and the real impact on gaming and everyday performance.

Single vs. Dual-Channel RAM: What's the Difference and Which One Should You Choose?

W tym przewodniku znajdziesz informacje na temat pamięci RAM jednokanałowej i dwukanałowej, zasady ich działania oraz ich rzeczywisty wpływ na wydajność w grach i na co dzień.

Pamięć RAM jednokanałowa a dwukanałowa: jaka jest różnica i którą wybrać?

How much RAM is enough — 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, or 64GB?

Instead of guessing, here’s a practical guide based on what you actually use your PC for.

➡️ Best for students, casual users, and light work PCs

➡️ Best for most gamers and casual creators in 2025

32GB – For Streaming, AAA Games, and Content Creation

➡️ Recommended for streamers, editors, power users

64GB+ – For 4K/8K Editing, AI, and Heavy Workloads

➡️ Best for professionals and workstation builders

Whether you’re building a minimal setup or a high-performance creative rig, choosing the right amount of RAM will keep your system smooth and future-proof. And if you're pairing high-speed RAM with powerful cooling and airflow, make sure your case can keep up — check out the 

 for builds that run cool and look clean.





How much RAM is enough — 8GB, 16GB, 32GB, or 64GB?
Instead of guessing, here’s a practical guide based on what you actually use your PC for.



8GB – For Office Work & Basic Tasks









Ideal for: Web browsing, Word, Excel, Google Docs, Zoom



Good enough if: You only run a few lightweight apps at once



Limitations: Multitasking will feel slow, especially with too many Chrome tabs open

➡️ Best for students, casual users, and light work PCs



16GB – For Gaming & Creative Beginners



(League of Legends – Video credit: LoL Esports)







Ideal for: Most modern games (Valorant, Apex, League), Photoshop, basic editing



Good enough if: You game or use light creative apps, but don’t do both at the same time



Limitations: Some AAA games may push the limit with background tasks

➡️ Best for most gamers and casual creators in 2025





32GB – For Streaming, AAA Games, and Content Creation



(Wuchang: Fallen Feathers – Video credit: IGN)







Ideal for: OBS + gaming, Premiere Pro, After Effects, multitasking with browser + Discord



Good enough if: You play demanding games or run editing software regularly



Limitations: Few — you’ll have headroom for future workloads

➡️ Recommended for streamers, editors, power users



64GB+ – For 4K/8K Editing, AI, and Heavy Workloads









Ideal for: 4K/8K video editing, 3D rendering, AI workloads, virtual machines



Good enough if: You’re doing complex media or technical tasks



Limitations: Price and diminishing returns unless you're really using it

➡️ Best for professionals and workstation builders



Final Recommendations





Whether you’re building a minimal setup or a high-performance creative rig, choosing the right amount of RAM will keep your system smooth and future-proof. And if you're pairing high-speed RAM with powerful cooling and airflow, make sure your case can keep up — check out the darkFlash case and cooling lineup for builds that run cool and look clean.





Find out exactly how much memory you need for gaming, work, or creative tasks—without the guesswork.

How Much RAM Do You Need in 2025?

Dowiedz się dokładnie, ile pamięci potrzebujesz do gier, pracy lub zadań twórczych — bez zgadywania.

Ile pamięci RAM potrzebujesz w 2025 roku?

Hardware Tips                                                   

Most motherboards on the market come with four RAM slots, but that doesn't mean filling all four is the best option. The optimal number of RAM sticks depends on the balance between stability and performance you're aiming for.

Recommended Setup: Two Sticks in Dual-Channel

If your motherboard has four slots, the best configuration is usually 

While filling all four slots might look visually pleasing, it doesn’t necessarily mean better performance—and may even cause problems:

Key Things to Keep in Mind When Installing RAM:

To maximize performance, install the RAM in the 

Mixing RAM sticks with different brands or frequencies can lead to compatibility issues or prevent your system from booting properly.





Most motherboards on the market come with four RAM slots, but that doesn't mean filling all four is the best option. The optimal number of RAM sticks depends on the balance between stability and performance you're aiming for.



Recommended Setup: Two Sticks in Dual-Channel

If your motherboard has four slots, the best configuration is usually two RAM sticks. Here’s why:





Maximum RAM performance: Two sticks allow for dual-channel memory, significantly boosting speed compared to a single stick.



Faster boot times: With only two sticks, the system performs fewer checks during startup.



Dual-channel advantages: The CPU can access two RAM modules simultaneously, increasing data transfer speed dramatically.



Room for future upgrades: You still have two empty slots for easy expansion down the line.







What Happens If You Use Four Sticks?

While filling all four slots might look visually pleasing, it doesn’t necessarily mean better performance—and may even cause problems:





Slower boot times: The system takes longer to check all four modules during startup.



Compatibility issues: All four sticks must have identical specs (capacity, speed, etc.) or performance could suffer.



Reduced stability: Due to motherboard wiring design, having four sticks can cause latency issues that affect performance and stability.







Key Things to Keep in Mind When Installing RAM:

1. Correct Slot Placement

To maximize performance, install the RAM in the 2nd and 4th slots from the left (usually labeled DIMM A2 and B2).







2. Avoid Mixing Brands or Speeds

Mixing RAM sticks with different brands or frequencies can lead to compatibility issues or prevent your system from booting properly.





Here's what you need to know about how many RAM sticks to install for optimal performance — and key tips to watch out for.

RAM Demystified: How Many Sticks Are Best for Your PC?

Porady sprzętowe

Oto, co musisz wiedzieć o tym, ile kości pamięci RAM należy zainstalować, aby uzyskać optymalną wydajność — oraz najważniejsze wskazówki, na które warto zwrócić uwagę.